Understanding the Functions of Proteins and Dna free essay sample

Understanding the Functions of Proteins and DNA Ingrain Waldron, Biology Department, University of Pennsylvania, 2012 These key concepts and activities are suggested as part of an introductory unit on biological molecules (or as an introduction too unit on molecular biology). The overarching goal is to help students understand that proteins and DNA are not Just abstract concepts in biology textbooks but rather crucial components of our bodies that affect familiar functions and characteristics. Key Concepts: Proteins are responsible for many important aspects of cell structure and unction. Differences in the structure and function of proteins result in differences in the characteristics of biological organisms. Teaching Approaches: 1. Brainstorming session using the probe What are proteins? Why are proteins important? 2. Show Youth video Protein Functions in the Body http://www. Youth. Mom/watch? V=T500B5yTy58 omit hormone section which has inaccuracies ask students to identify 5 functions of proteins 3. Hands-on activity: Enzymes Help Us Digest Food (available at http:// serendipity. We will write a custom essay sample on Understanding the Functions of Proteins and Dna or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Barnyard. Deed/sic_Deed/Waldron/#enzymes) Experiments using the enzyme acetates and discussion questions help students to learn about enzyme function, enzyme specificity, and the molecular basis of lactose intolerance. Students also learn about the scientific method by interpreting evidence to test hypotheses and designing the second and third experiments to answer specific scientific questions about lactate. 4. Review protein functions and reinforce the idea that, if a protein is missing or defective, this has observable effects on our bodies: Protein Function Examples Effect if This Protein Missing or Defective* Enzyme Lactate (breaks down lactose)Lactose intolerance (difficulty digesting milk) Enzyme for synthesizing melanin (pigment that gives our skin and hair color) Albinism (very pale skin and hair) Transport Hemoglobin (protein in red blood cells which transports oxygen in the blood) Sickle cell anemia Clotting Clotting proteins in blood Hemophilia (excessive bleeding) *Teacher intimation on these conditions is provided, beginning on the next page. DNA contains genes which provide the information necessary to make proteins. Different versions of the same gene result in different versions or amounts of a protein, and the differences in the protein result in different characteristics illustrated in the table above). 1. Discussion of probe question Why do some people have lactose intolerance, albinism, sickle cell anemia, or hemophilia, and other people dont? 2. Show What is a gene? available at http://learn. Genetics. Utah. Deed/content/begin/ tour/ illustrates both Key Concepts for this section 3. Revisit probe question. Teacher Information about Conditions Resulting from Missing or Defective Proteins Lactose Intolerance The alleles for the gene for lactate differ in the nucleotide sequence in the regulatory DNA; this difference influences the rate of transcription of the coding DNA and thus influences the rate of production of the protein, lactate. Lactate persistence alleles result in substantial production of lactate throughout life. The lactate omnipresence allele results in substantial production of lactate by infants, but very low levels of lactate in adults, resulting in lactose intolerance. In the most common form of albinism, the lack of the pigment melanin affects not only skin and hair color, but also the appearance and function of the eyes. Further information about the various forms of albinism, as well as a great deal of information on other aspects of human genetics, is available from MIM, Online Madeline Inheritance in Man (www. Incubi. Ml. NIH. Gob/MIM/; search for 223100 (lactose intolerance), 606952 (albinism), 603903 (sickle cell anemia), or 306700 or 306900 (hemophilia)). Students may ask about the distinction between inherited albinism and vitality. Albinism is the inability of the bodys cells to produce melanin and affects the whole body. Vitality is a patterned loss of melanin pigment resulting from the destruction of melancholys; the hypertrophied areas appear on the skin of a person with normal pigmentation. (Additional information from the National Vitality Foundation is available at www. Nevi. Org. ) (continued) Sickle cell anemia Sickle cell hemoglobin is less soluble in the watery costly of the red blood cells than normal hemoglobin, particularly when oxygen concentrations are low. Thus, sickle ell hemoglobin tends to form long stacks or rods of hemoglobin molecules, which results in the sickles shape of some red blood cells in a person who is homozygous for the sickle cell allele and consequently has sickle cell anemia. The sickles red blood cells tend to clog the tiny capillaries, blocking the circulation in different parts of the body. Also, the sickles red blood cells do not survive as long as normal red blood cells, contributing to a tendency to anemia. Resulting symptoms include pain, physical weakness, impaired mental functioning, and damage to organs such as the heart and kidneys. Protein 0 Phenotype Normal hemoglobin dissolves in the costly of red blood cells 0 Disk-shaped red blood cells can squeeze through the capillaries 0 normal health Sickle cell hemoglobin can clump in rods in red blood cells 0 Some red blood cells are sickle-shaped > clogged capillaries and fragile red blood cells 0 pain, damage to body organs, anemia In a person who is heterozygous for the sickle cell and normal hemoglobin alleles, each red blood cell has both sickle cell and normal hemoglobin. The amount of normal hemoglobin is sufficient to prevent the symptoms of sickle cell anemia in almost all cases. The sickle cell hemoglobin in each red blood cell decreases the severity of malaria in heterozygous individuals because the malaria parasite doesnt grow as well in red blood cells containing sickle cell hemoglobin. Additional information can be found in Sickle cell anemia, available at www. Monoclinic. Com/health/sickle-cell-anemia/DISCUSS A video, Sickle cell anemia is available at http://www. Him. Rig/bioinformatics/DNA/Dana_sickles. HTML Hemophilia An injury to a blood vessel triggers the activation of a series of blood-clotting proteins which culminates in the activation of thrombi which converts forefinger to fibrin which forms a clot. When one of the blood-clotting proteins is defective, it takes an abnormally long time tort a b clot to tort, resulting in excessive bleeding tater injury or surgery. In severe cases, a person may experience spontaneous bleeding. This c ondition is called hemophilia. Hemophilia is due to alleles that code for defective clotting proteins, most commonly alleles of one of two genes on the X chromosome. Since a male has only one X chromosome in each cell, if his X chromosome has an allele that codes for defective looting protein, he will not be able to make blood clots properly and he will have hemophilia. In contrast, a female has two X chromosomes, so she generally only has hemophilia if she is homozygous for a recessive allele for a defective clotting protein. In most heterozygous women, approximately half of her liver cells have the X chromosome with the normal allele active (due to random inactivation of one X chromosome in each cell), and these cells are able to make enough blood clotting protein to prevent hemophilia. However, in some heterozygous women random inactivation of one X chromosome in each cell has resulted in less than half the cells in her liver having the X chromosome with the allele for the normal clotting protein and these women may have mild hemophilia (e. . With heavy prolonged menstrual bleeding and frequent nosebleeds). Additional information can be found in Hemophilia, available at http:// gar. Ml. NIH. Gob/condition/hemophilia Additional Resource for Teaching about Macromolecules: Who took Sorrels pod? An Organic Compound Mystery (a hands-on activity available at http://serendipity. Barnyard. Deed/sic_Deed/Waldron/#organic ) In this activity, students earn how to test for triglycerides, glucose, starch, and protei n and then use these tests to solve a mystery. The activity reinforces students understanding of the biological functions and food sources of these different types of organic compounds. Additional Resources for Teaching Molecular Biology: Multiple activities for teaching about DNA structure, replication and function, transcription and translation, and the molecular biology of mutations are suggested in Molecular Biology: Major Concepts and Learning Activities (available at http:// serendipity. Barnyard. Deed/exchange/biostatistics/Million).

Instructions on How to Make a Gentle Soap

Instructions on How to Make a Gentle Soap These are the instructions for making your own gentle hand or face soap. Its work, but worth the effort! This takes about 1 day to complete. Materials 4 kg (9 lb) suet (tallow)350 g (12 oz) lye750 ml (3 C) water500 ml (2 C) lemon juice7.5 ml (.25 oz) fragranceGlovesWooden spoonVentilated work areaMolds/glass baking dishes Instructions on How to Make Soap If you are using a pure fat, such as coconut oil or olive oil, you can skip stepping 5. Coconut oil yields a soft, quick-lathering soap. Olive oil and other vegetable cooking oils yield a soft soap that never completely hardens.Render the tallow by cutting it into chunks, placing it into the large pot, covering it, and heating on medium heat until it is melted. Stir occasionally.Cool the fat to below the boiling point of water. Add a volume of water equal to that of the fat. Bring the mixture to a boil. Cover and remove from heat. Let sit overnight.Remove the fat from the pot. Discard non-fat gunk (scrape it off of the bottom of the fat) and any liquid.Measure 2.75 kg rendered fat. Cut the fat into tennis-ball size chunks and place the pieces into a large bowl.Set up all of your materials. Ventilate the area (or work outside), put on safety gear, and open all containers.Make soap :-) Pour the water into a large glass or ceramic bowl (not metal). Carefully pour the lye into the bowl a nd mix the water and lye with the wooden spoon. The reaction between water and lye gives off heat (is exothermic) and vapors that you should avoid breathing. The spoon will be somewhat degraded by the lye.Once the lye is dissolved by the water, start adding the chunks of fat, a bit at a time. Keep stirring until the fat is melted. If necessary, add heat (put on a low burner with ventilation).Stir in the lemon juice and fragrance oil (optional). Once the soap is well mixed, pour it into molds. If you use glass baking dishes for molds, you can cut the soap into bars after it has become firmer (not hard).The soap will harden in approximately an hour.You may wrap the finished soap in clean cotton rags. It can be stored for 3-6 months in a cool, well-ventilated location.Wear gloves when washing your equipment, as there may be some unreacted lye remaining. Wash in very hot water to help melt away the residue. Useful Tips Adult supervision required! Wear gloves and protective eyewear and cover exposed skin to avoid accidental exposure to the lye. Keep out of reach of children!If you get lye on your skin, immediately wash it with lots of cold water. Read the cautions on the container before opening the lye.Dont measure the lye. Instead, adjust the soap recipe to accomodate the container size of the lye.Cooking oils are sensitive to air and light, and soap made from cooking oils will spoil in a few weeks unless it is refrigerated.Volatile fragrance oils or even dried herbs or spices may be added to the soap to scent it. The fragrance is optional.

Article Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 28

Article Review - Essay Example Besides, Julia gives a broader picture of the extraneous factors that surround the act (Julia, 2014). The article asserts that the motive of creating the act was in good faith as it addresses the threat of increased fraud in the corporate world. However, the article also hints at some faction of the society viewing the act as politically motivation. This is a normal observation that corporate regulations which have significant influence in the government revenue collection and general economic progress of the country must attract such criticism. Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX Act) of 2002 is noted as effective in taming business malpractices that constitute fraudulent conduct of corporate financial governance. The aforementioned incidences are highlighted in the article as reflective of the potential threat hence the timeliness of this act. The article explains that the criterion that was used to create the act emphasized cost-benefit analysis. The act is expansively addressed by the article in terms of how it will boost ethical practices in corporate governance. The investors’ interests basically remain the key role of the company management. It is therefore unfair to rob the investors of their hard earned commitment to the stock market. The efficiency with which the act is applicable is overwhelmingly supported by Julia based on two practical premises. The flexibility of the act in terms of exemption of some small firms seems to be a positive idea. As can be noted in the article, the widely noted heavy cost of sustaining this regulation by firms justifies exemption of otherwise small companies. This to some extent is aligned towards ethical aspect of the act in its application (De & Argosy University. 2006). The financial transparency of the corporations is emphasized as the basis of ethical duty of the managers. Internal control

Slumdog Millionaire Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Slumdog Millionaire - Essay Example Destiny shows them many different colors of life. Winner of four Golden Globe awards, eight Oscars and many more awards like the Baftas, Sulmdog Millionaire is not only a critically acclaimed film, but also a hardcore entertainer. The movie has an interesting plot and reveals a lot about the diverse Indian lifestyles. Director Danny Boyle does a good job in capturing the good, the bad, and the ugly parts of the slums in Mumbai. Boyle is successful in making each scene very real, from capturing a short-lived moment of happiness to the pain and struggle of poverty and homelessness. The director has been successful in making you feel for the characters of the story. He has brought out the beauty of India, whether it’s the Taj Mahal or the slums of Mumbai, or the Indian trains or even the community toilets of the urban Indian slum. Apart from the scenes Boyle has brought out the best in the cast, whether it’s Anil Kapoor, from Indian mainstream cinema or Dev Patel, or the children who come from the Indian slums. The cast of the movie includes actors from mainstream Indian cinema, like Anil Kapoor and Irfan Khan, Dev Patel and Frieda Pinto, and Azharuddin, who plays the role of the child Salim from the slums of Mumbai. All the actors in the movie have given it their best shot. Though the cast involves actors coming from various areas and lifestyles, they all have contributed their best and given the film critical acclaim. The child actors bring out true colors of life in the slums. The expressions, the speech, the style, and the emotion used by the actors are very authentic and captivating. The performance by all the actors has been excellent and they have given their roles a touch of reality.

Can We Attain Happiness Without God Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Can We Attain Happiness Without God - Essay Example They perceive that the attainment of the happiness is dependent on the attainment of the presence of God in our lives in certain manner. The religious teachings and the normal points of the view differ in achievement of the happiness. A majority of the religions speak of the importance of God as the primal force behind the attainment of the happiness. There are a number of prominent philosophers, like Aristotle; who have propagated that happiness is a state of mind. This forms the base of the contradictory nature of the definition of happiness. The Christian teachings place a lot of importance on the seeking of God as a means of happiness (Milton 179). This can be attributed to the basic view of God as a driving force of this universe. This also emanates from the fact that God as seen as an omnipotent being who does well to all. This essential property qualifies him as a quintessential source of happiness. The contemporary philosophers like Voltaire have pointed to the material natur e of happiness (Olson 201). They also argue that happiness is a state of the mind. Some have an external locus of happiness, as for example, the material possessions, money, clothes and wife. For some others, it is internal in nature. After a thorough analysis of all the points, I concur with the view of the faith, that God gives us happiness. It is of likelihood to me as it puts the onus of happiness to a greater power. This rests the grail of happiness in a power that is bigger than us, better than us, more intelligent than us and ultimately makes happiness seem more attainable. VIRTUES Virtue is a kind of moral excellence. The denomination of virtue is positive and renders a sense of inherent goodness in any human being. They serve as the cornerstone of the development of any person. They are inherent to the development of the greatness of any individual. This can also be termed as the pattern of the thought in all the individuals. The virtues can be considered as a subset of the values. The values are the base of the system of the operations of a person. If the values are maintained in the proper way, that leads to an all-round development of the individual. There is a classification of the virtues, which tend to divide the virtues into a number of tangible patterns. The established literature talks about two kinds of virtues, one is the Kantian virtue; the other is the Aristotle kind of the virtue. Aristotle values mention a list of values. They are temperance, the practice of justice, the practice of liberality, magnificence, the pride (being aware of the achievements of self and not being pompous), gentleness and a few other qualities. These are the general list of the virtues that are common to the literature. Aristotle has suggested the practice of the moderation in all the virtues. This shall help in the attainment of the needs of all the humans. Everything must be practiced in the right kind of the moderation for the attainment of the goals. This he lps in the development of the fundamental nature of humans at any point of time. One of the examples is the use of the moderation over the thinking. There is the need to practice middle path by not getting too anxious about anything, while maintaining the seriousness of any situation. I believe in the practice of the virtues, as they would help us in becoming better humans. It would also allow us to gain a

Impacts Of Climate Change On Coastal Areas Environmental Sciences Essay

Impacts Of Climate Change On Coastal Areas Environmental Sciences Essay An increase or decrease in the temperature for a long time has negative effects on the coastal areas (Moser, 2000). Global warming in the biggest environmental issue which posses stress and pressure to the coast leading to floods and erosions (Shaw, 2002). Tropical or winter storms can grow to dangerous coastal storms, making the surface of the water fiercer (Forces of nature, 2000). Higher temperature levels in the climate increases the temperature of the water, increasing the risk of low oxygen conditions threatening fish stocks and other marine organisms (David, Gordon, 2007). Global warming, high temperature level and coastal storms require more consideration and a better solution is needed to overcome these to protect the coast and the earth from being submerged. In 2002, Jane S. Shaw, stated that global warming manifest of being the most dangerous environmental issue as it has the ability to affect the entire earth and the whole world depends on it. Global warming warms the earth due to the excess of carbon in the atmosphere (Cunnigham, Cunningham, Saigo, Bailey, Shrubsole, 2005). The oceans job is to keep the planets carbon dioxide levels in balance or equilibrium but the problem now is that with so much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels, the oceans, like the air are getting warmer (David, Gordon, 2007). When the oceanic water becomes warmer than usual, it leads to thermal expansion; water molecules move faster and become farther apart, occupying more space (Stein, 2001). Cold seawater absorbs more carbon dioxide than warm seawater, therefore if carbon dioxide emissions continue to rise; the oceans will simply be too warm to take as much carbon dioxide as they have been (David, Gordon, 2007). In the North and Sou th poles, ice and snow reflect away solar radiation from the earths surface because of their bright white color. Higher temperatures make the ice and snow reflect less sunlight, making the earth warmer (Stein, 2001). Increase in the temperature can melt the ice sheets into the oceans (Shaw, 2002). If the Greenland ice sheets melts completely, it will add enough water to raise levels all across the world by 21 feet (6.4m) (David, Gordon, 2007). In 2007, David and Gordon observed that in the last 100 years, global sea levels have risen 8 inches (20cm). When the sea level rises, there is an increased threat of floods and erosion (Stein, 2002). When there is too much carbon dioxide in the air, the sea takes up the slack, soaking up the extra carbon dioxide like a gigantic sponge (David, Gordon, 2007). In general, the warming of the earth does not lead to either positive or profitable consequences. Global warming only contributes to negative ends and destroys the globe slowly. Melting of the ice sheets is not a good sign for the earth and actions towards global warming needs to be enforced to be able to prevent the ice sheets from melting and raising the level of the oceans. This picture of the graph shows increase in the sea level rise from 1850 to 2100 and it is predicted that the sea level will rise up to 20 inches till 2050 due to thermal expansion and the melting of ice sheets (Sea level rise, 2010). There are approximately one billion people who live in coastal areas (David, Gordon, 2007). Even small levels in the sea rise can be dangerous for small islands (Shaw, 2002). Urban areas built near sea level like New York, Boston, Washington, and Miami can be at risk because of flooding (Moser, 2000). The rise in sea increases the risk of coastal flooding from rainstorms, because low areas drain more slowly as sea level rises (Climate change health, 2010). The coastal storms become more dangerous when the wind and waves drive water farther inland than ever before (Stein, 2001). Coastal storms cause a lot of damage in coastal areas, resulting in flooding and mudslides (Moser, 2000). Industrialized countries such as United States and Europe might be able to cope with the dangers related to sea level rise but other poor countries might not (Shaw, 2002). The increase in sea level poses as threat to properties, infrastructures, coastal industries, coastal and marine ecosystems (Moser, 20 00). Because of tropical or winter storms the ocean waves intensifies on the open ocean and these storms make the surface of the water much choppier and fiercer than normal which affects the beaches ( Forces of nature, 2000). There is tremendous loss of money when recreational areas near beaches get affected due to beach erosion (Moser, 2000). Hundreds of cities are built near the sea level and there is a lot of money involved in the development of these cities. If erosion occurs, these areas will flood. Poor countries cannot even afford to prevent floods or help people living along the coastal areas, therefore they need to protect the environment and come up with all the possible, economical ways to reduce catastrophic weather change. Rising sea temperature is considered to be the largest threat to coral reefs today (mangroves for the, 2007). The mangroves for the in 2007 also stated that when there is a higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the seawater, it will lead to ocean acidification reducing calcification rates of calcifying organisms such as corals. Corals and all shellfish need a certain level of calcium in order to make their hard shells; but higher acidity hits the delicate balance of calcium in the water, reducing the amount available to coral and shellfish to build their protective skeletons (David, Gordon, 2007). Disintegration of degraded reefs following bleaching or reduced classification may result in increased wave energy across reef flats with potential for shoreline erosion (mangroves for the, 2007). When water temperature rise, the algae cannot photosynthesize, the chemical reaction that converts sunlight and carbon dioxide into sugars is blocked and the coral losses its source of color and turns white, almost as if it grown old overnight (David, Gordon, 2007). There is limited ecological and genetic evidence for adaptation of corals to warmer conditions (mangroves for the, 2007). Bleached corals becomes weaker and more vulnerable to disease, predators and storms, it is becoming a pretty feeble hideout for exotic fish (David, Gordon, 2007). Many reefs are affected by tropical cyclones, impacts range from minor breakage of fragile corals to destruction of the majority of corals on a reef and deposition of debris as coarse storm ridges (mangroves for the, 2007). Coastal storms pollute the water due to sediments and pollutants with higher runoff (David, Gordon, 2007). Coastal ecosystems, especially mangroves forests and coral reefs act as buffers against extreme weather conditions and natural disasters, thereby reducing the vulnerability of coastal communities and their investments (mangroves for the, 2007). As stated earlier, the change in the climate can rise the sea level which enables living organisms that live in the ocean from performing daily normal tasks and they eventually die. The ocean is a very big ecosystem for millions of organisms and they are all connected with each other, the removal of one specie from the food chain can really affect the other species. The corals act as an important factor in the ocean and therefore they need to be protected and the sea level and pH needs to be balanced so that the corals are not bleached or affected. Preventative measurements need to be taken toward the coastal areas because a lot of lives can be affected if precautions are not taken. Numerous amounts of projects as well as investments are trying to save the earth from being submerged. The mangroves for the future (MFF) launched a project whose objective is to strengthen the environmental sustainability of coastal development and promote sound investment in costal ecosystem management as a means of enhancing resilience and supporting local livelihoods (mangroves for the, 2007). There are approximately a number of 200 million people who live across the world in high risk coastal flooding areas, (how to prevent, 2010) and this MFF project might be able to help them. These projects require a lot of money to be able to put in action, long term erosion defense and repair requires millions of dollars and requires the participation of a lot of members (how to prevent, 2010). The MFF supports and endorses the concept of REDD (reducing em issions from deforestation and ecosystem degradation) as a result of climate change and mitigation option (mangroves for the, 2007). There are preventative measures being taken to protect the low-lying coastal areas against damage from tidal inundation through the construction of embankments capable of withstanding the anticipated storm surge height and forces (disaster preventation and, 1999). These types of protection will decrease the amount of force in the tides and might prevent the beaches from getting a disastrous damage. The buildings of seawalls, barrier islands and beach nourishment can also protect the coast from the climate change impact (how to do, 2010). Barrier island is a piece of land that is made up of sand and it prevents the coastal storms from damaging the mainland of the island (Paris). The strength of coastal storms changes the shape and the form of the islands and causes erosion of the dunes and can completely destroy the dune system if it is severe (Paris). One of the most dangerous effects on earth is global warming. Global warming comes with enormous amounts of complexity and dangers for the globe. The impacts of this threat needs to be reduced so that it does not damage the earth and therefore every single individual need to live greener. There are multiple ways through which global warming can be reduce. People need to be more energy efficient and they can do so by turning their appliances off when its not required, insulating their house, making their lifestyle greener by reducing the use of vehicles and by educating future generations (prevent climate change, 2010). These small steps can add up at the end and make a big change on the climate.

Mathematics of Light Essay -- Math

Introduction Up to the seventeenth century, most theories attributed color to some sort of modification of light that was thought to occur when light interacted with matter. Light, in its purest form (such as sunlight) was thought to be colorless. However, progress in understanding color was made by Isaac Newton when in 1666 he was able to show that normal white light already contained all the colors of the spectrum, which could be separated using a prism. He also concluded from his experiments that objects have color because they selectively reflect certain colors of the spectrum while absorbing light of other colors. Light is the small part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can affect the human sense of sight. The visible part of the spectrum (for us) ranges from 400 nm (blue) to 700 nm (red). Each wavelength value within the visible band corresponds to a distinct colour. Parameters of light that are of interest to us: Wavelength - the length of one light-wave cycle Frequency - the number of wavelengths per second Three attributes are used to specify a color: hue, saturation and brightness. These describe only the perception of light, not its physical properties. 1. Hue - a feature of monochromatic light that varies with wavelength and used to denote the various regions of the spectrum (in other words, the basic color from the spectrum). 2. Saturation - how much a color differs from white (ie vivid pure color versus pastel color) 3. Brightness - the perceived intensity of light Spectral Power Distribution Monochromatic light is light that has only one wavelength, and thus cannot be further divided into different components using a prism. But most light sources are not monochromatic ... ...d (B) of wavelength 435.8nm. This means that given an RGB color (C) = L1(R) + L2(G) + L3 (B), its coordinates in the XYZ system are: X = 2.7689*L1 + 0.38159*L2 + 18.801*L3 Y = L1 + L2 + L3 Z = 0 + 0.012307*L2 + 93.066*L3 This particular transformation was chosen so that the XYZ system would have several convenient properties. One is that there are no negative tristimulus values, which reduces the possibility of error. Another is that the color triangle enclose the spectrum locus as closely as possible. Works Consulted Williamson, Samuel J. and Herman Z. Cummins. Light and Color in Nature and Art. 1983. John Wiley and Sons. Overheim, R. Daniel and David L. Wagner. Light and Color. 1982. John Wiley and Sons. Bouma, Dr. P. J. Physical Aspects of Colour. 1971. MacMillan. Wright, W. D. The Measurement of Colour. 1969. Adam Hilger.